Thesis: Religion played a large role in assigning gender roles and traditions to games played by Indigenous tribes living in the Great Plains. 
Religion/Traditions 

The Great Plains Indians consisted of the Sioux, Blackfoot, Comanches, Apaches, and Arapahos tribes. For them religion was intertwined into every aspect of their life, such as hunting, farming, games, etc. Their identity was based off their religion and was a way to respond to the constantly changing environment. Although games were a major tradition and big part of their lives, the Great Plains Indians also had many other traditions that date back to before the Europeans colonized them. Some of these traditions have lived on, and have survived European colonialism. As we explore the traditions of the Great Plains Indians it is important to focus on how the traditions have changed over time, and what traditions still play a role in their lives today. Some of these traditions consist of dancing, lodges, holidays, and also what component of their lives it affects, such as hunting or warfare.

    Before the Europeans colonized the Great Plains Indians tribes were a mixture of two groups; semi-sedentary horticulturists and nomadic hunters.[xxii] This meant that for the hunters the buffalo were very important, and for the horticulturists, a connection to the land was crucial; this is where religious traditions come into play. All the tribes were pantheistic, meaning they believed that spirits lived inside natural things and in events. As stated before the Great Plains tribes consisted of two groups, and location played a very big party in determining their religious practices. For an example those who lived near the Mississippi river were more geared toward agriculture, whereas those in the Dakotas relied more off of bison hunting. The more agricultural tribes concentrated on creating an intimate relationship between people and land. The tribes that depended on Bison hunting partook in vision quests, which would bring people in communication with supernatural powers that would help them improve their hunting skills. These tribes also participated in the sun dance which was an annual ritual that symbolized the recreation and renewal of the cosmos that would then in turn secure the prosperity of the tribe. [xxiii]. All the tribes would gather together in the summer to start the hunt of buffalo. The sun dance was a drawn-out dance by young men, and would carry on for about a week of intensive activity. Body painting was also included, and sun dance songs were sung by singers. A ceremony, or now considered a holiday, that more agricultural tribes participated in was thanksgiving. Thanksgiving wasn’t just once a year but several times a year. It was a way of saying thank you for the gift of nature. It was celebrated year long and would takes place after things such as a safe birth, successful games, or a good harvesting year. A feast would be prepared and the tribe would all get together to show their gratuity.[xxiv] Other traditions that were prominent in the tribes of the Great Plains was medicine societies, sweat lodges, and totem poles. Medicine societies were a vital part in curing, and finding cures. The practices of these medicine societies used medical plants and also psychiatric support. A couple of the most famous medicine societies was in the upper Great Lakes called Midewiwin, or “Grand Medicine Society”. Another was of the Iroquois called the False Face society, which incorporated wooden masks while performing rituals that help to cure people. Each clan also had what was known as a medicine bundle that contained sacred objects that were treated as if they were alive. The clans had to ensure the beings were in good health and aid by performing rituals for them[xxv]. Dreams were important in finding cures because they believed a dream would indicate a person’s power to cure. Dreams, they believed, would lead people to finding their strengths, or purpose, such as in warfare, or hunting. Sweat lodges were very valuable for they helped to prepare the natives for  ceremonies, and would also be used following the ceremonies. They considered sweat lodges a purification ritual, and songs would be sung which would help people to reach a state of mind that would allow them to handle the extreme temperature (could get up to 200 degrees). Lastly Totem poles were used among many Native Americans, and is what many people associate with Native Americans today. They were a way for the owner to show everybody who they are. They would carve things such as the family or clan crest, and figures that symbolized mythic beings. Many animals were used on totem poles because of their spiritual value to the Native Americans. As can be seen, all of the traditions, not just games,  are intertwined into the everyday lives of the Great Plains Indians. Their beliefs form an integral part of their lives and the purpose of their lives.

 When the Europeans began to colonize the Great Plains Indians some of the traditions disappeared, changed, new ones were formed, or some, such as games, even influenced the Europeans. The Great Plains Indians saw a lot of change when the Europeans arrived for they took their land, attempted to convert many to christianity, and they nearly killed off all of the bison, an essential element to the Great plains Indians. In a Kiowan story it was once said that “The end of the world: the buffalo go” referring to when the white men came and killed all of the buffalo. The federal government actually started professional Buffalo hunting in order to destroy the food source and pressure the nomadic plains indians into submission. The result of this was a major decrease in bison. The dream dance was actually a tradition created and became popular around the 1870s when prophets warned the tribes of old sacred objects losing their power, such as the bison. People would make an intricately decorated drum, and drumsticks and would travel to a host tribe singing songs and give gifts. The host tribe would then also respond with presents[xxvi]. One of the biggest conflicts that actually led to this dance being created was when Stephen Rigges tried to instill a “white man’s” education on the Sioux, and then in 1862 violence broke out between the Sioux and the colonizers. After the violence the Sioux felt that white culture had broken the supernatural powers that used to be so important in tribal life. This loss of supernatural powers led to an increase in christianity among the Great Plains Indians. Some argue that the missionization of the Native Americans was a tool of conquest for the whites,  that it was a way to attack the souls and identity of the Native people. Many French Jesuit missionaries came to the Great Plains in order to convert the Native Americans to Christianity[xxvii]. Missionization was a big reason why native Americans switched to christianity. David Brown, a young cherokee who converted to christianity stated that “the (indians) were once independent and happy...free from direful and destructive wars...in more tranquil and prosperous state previous to their acquaintance than at any subsequent period”[xxviii]. It is interesting to see that a Native American who actually did convert to christianity still discredited the assumption that native people were in desperate spiritual need before the arrival of the Europeans. Despite all odds though the Great Plains Indians actually still live on today and practice their own traditions, and we see many sports, such as lacrosse still played today. They have proven they could modernize and survive without the help of the white people.

 nowadays the Great Plains Indians are still around, and the question of what their traditions look like now is very intriguing.  In the book Native American Healing it talks about what religion looks like for the Lakota Indians. Majority of the Lakota people nowadays have embraced Christianity as the predominant spirituality of their lives. Others have embraced the Native American church, so now their religion is one that is taken from Christian tenets and various indigenous beliefs. This is how it is for many other Great Plains tribes, a mixture of both christianity and native beliefs. The book stated “it has been a source of continual amazement to me that the Lakota people, despite their restrictive and limiting relationship to the United States, find ways to entertain themselves and fulfill themselves with an ever present spiritual wealth” (pg. 1) [xxix] Ritual for the Natives today is still very important because they allow for the people to find peace, harmony, well-being, and wisdom by relating to their environment, as well as connecting them to the spiritual world.

 It is apparent that the Great Plains Indians were very strong and resilient. By looking at the changes of traditions over time it is clear the close connection Native Americans had, and still do have, with the environment. Even though the traditions varied across the Great plains, they were still just minor differences among tribes.[xxx] All their lives greatly relied off of nature, such as bison, or agriculture, and they believed everything in nature had a soul that must be treated with respect.[xxxi] There are so many other traditions in the Great Plains tribes that are of importance to them, and some that we can even learn from today.

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The plains Indians thoroughly influenced what we as Americans call “sport”.  The Indians utilized mainly two genres of sport; chance based sport and skill based sport. Both these genres were extremely prevalent and evolved into many crucial aspects of American life.
Dance as an Indigenous Tradition In the beginning of Inuit games and sports, dancing was a sport that was closely linked to religion, and it was an honor given to men to dance as the lead. However, many tribes started placing women in lead roles of dances, and women came out of the background and began to dance in the center. Not only are women now the stars of many tribal dances, but also women dances became increasingly difficult in tempo and movement. Women dances soon passed men dances in level of intricate difficulty. As the dances shifted from the responsibility of men to women, so did a shift in roles take place. It was not uncommon for women to participate in raiding and warfare for Indian tribes of the Northern Great Plains [iv]. Whereas a warrior occupation was a lifestyle job for men, it was not this way for women. They were allowed to pick and choose when they wanted to partake in acts of war [v]. In some cases, being a warrior paved a woman’s way to a higher status. There are stories of women who were invited to be a part of the men’s council meetings. One such woman, Running Eagle, came to be known as “Woman Chief” in 1850[vi]. She “lived among the Crow people and was so daring that she was ranked as the third leading warrior in a group of 160 lodges” [vii].

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For the Indians living in the Northern Plains, cultural dances are a sport used by every person in the tribe. In the Great Plains, Indians dance to represent of a number of different things. One of the most famous dances is known as the “Ghost Dance.” This dance is used to anticipate the destruction of the earth [viii]. For the Indigenous people, religion is the primary means of preserving culture. Most of the time, stories of religion are taught through interpretive dance [ix]. Dances also spread from tribe to tribe across the Plains to signify good or bad harvest. One such of these dances is known as the “Grass Dance.” There are many myths and stories that tell where the Grass Dance possibly originated. Some of these include a medicine man telling a handicapped boy to observe and copy the swaying motion of the grass, and to scouts blessing and flattening the grass in preparation for a ceremony. Dances are also used to start uprisings and signify war [x]. During the winter, war, and hunting season, men would be the leaders of the organized dance. During the summer and in agricultural ceremonies, women would be the featured performers of the dance. The Ho-Chunk of Wisconsin have maintained a hunting dance and a special wild-rice ceremonial danced in September when this crop is harvested [xi]. The dream dance ritual became associated with boys’ puberty and with a votive Sun Dance ceremony [xii]. 

Gender Roles Seen in Games
Indian women have their own set of games that they play. Most often they are deeply rooted in their religion and historical traditions of their families. The relationship between women’s role in society and their contribution to sports and games is seen in the history of women and sports. Women often have the pleasure of having games specifically designated to them [ii]. This is an honor in indigenous tribes because women could participate in more than just housework. It is an honor to compete in sports if you are a woman. Gender roles are most clearly seen in Competition Powwows of native people. The commencement of a powwow is known as a “Grand Entry” [iii]. This is when adult males enter the arena as a group. Adult females, then male children, and finally children females all enter in a line after the adult males. Female children are seen in Indigenous culture as having the least authority- this is why the entered last. All of the competitors are split into groups by age and gender. Female competitors do not compete in the same games as male competitors in the powwows.
Games of Chance and Gambling 

It is commonly associated with Indians owning casinos and their gambling addictions. Few people know that this association is actually part of rich indian tradition of skill based games. One game that clearly exemplified an Indian tradition that became an American tradition was the game of Peon which involved two teams each consisting of two or more players. Each  player on one team has one black and one white short stick, which the players hide in their hands. The object of the game is to prevent the opposing team from guessing which hand the short stick is in. [xxxii]. Modern stigmas of indian gambling as we know started in Florida in the Seminole tribe in the 1980’s when in an attempt to raise more revenue the Seminole tribe began putting on bingo games offering better and bigger prizes than the state run bingo games outside of the tribe. This naturally caused a lawsuit which turned into Seminole Tribe v. Buttersworth. The ruling stated that if it was a legal form of gambling than it would be free from state regulation but if it was an illegal form of gambling the state would step in and shut it down. Although the Seminole tribe is not a Great Plains tribe this court case set the precedent for all tribes across the country. In 1988 congress formally passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA)[xxxiii] which basically ensures that tribes are the only ones who reap the benefits from gambling and not the states. This has been challenged countless times by the state but has always held up in the courts. Some states are frequently not cooperating with tribes which has made it difficult for some tribes to operate their gaming operations. Today, gaming is often the most successful sources of employment and revenues available to tribes. The proceeds from casinos are used by Indian Nations for tribal maintenance, cultural preservation, and to help the more impoverished within local communities.
Skill Based Games

    On the flip side the chance based games and gambling are skill and strength based games, these ones could not be left up to lady luck and actually required some physical prowess. One of the most famous games the the Plains Indians played was the hoop-and-pole game.[xxxiv] Many tribes play this game different ways and it has evolved overtime but the general principle lives on. One person would roll a hoop with a hole in the middle of it and another person would be standing a certain distance away with a spear like stick attempting to throw the stick into the hole in the hoop.  Almost everyone played games depending on the age and type of activity. Young people played the most strenuous  games of strength and endurance. The elders advised the younger on how to be become better at these games of strength and endurance. The elders also played their own games of intuition and chance. The players of these games always got better with age. Everyone, even children who were not as athletic was encouraged to participate in the spirit of the game, because it was such a great tradition.[xxxvi] Numerous items would be exchanged in bets placed for the  adults competitions. These are some of the first forms of gambling that  the native americans ever partook in. In some tribes these games could would be more like a festival than just your average intramural soccer game. The tribes could gather for days and with singing, dancing, feasts and other fun things. Most important of all in the games was the spiritual aspect of these games, the combination of mind, body, and spirit was so important to the plains indians spiritual beliefs.  The games slowly evolved as technology got better and different generations changed different rules.   

The Great Plains Indians have many different tribes such as the Sioux, Blackfoot, Comanches, Apaches, and Arapahos tribes. They all are very spiritual and connected to the environment because, for them, religion was interconnected to every aspect of their lives. Games, dances, feasts, all are some of their religious practices. As this essay explores the different traditions of the Great Plains Indians throughout time, it is apparent the effects they have on all our lives. Their traditions are strong enough to withstand modernity, and they prove they have a place in society as civilized people. 

Sports, dances, and religion throughout American history tell us that Indigenous games are often thought of to the people as much more than simple pastimes. Sports are a social, a cultural, and an economic phenomenon. Native American sports are known to give contributions to their lifestyle in all areas, and add various traditions. Sports played by indigenous tribes in America are shown through history to acknowledge how their culture and traditions merge with colonization to create the sports we play today in modern society. It is important to remember that many factors such as race, religion, gender, and age affect native people’s role in their day to day lives [i].
Lacrosse

Lacrosse is arguably considered the most famous Native American game. It is the modern version of the North American Indian game of baggataway. The name “Lacrosse” was given to the game by the first French settlers to witness the game and the motion of its throwing of a ball across field to opposite players carrying sticks. The crossing action stood out to the French, and, hence, they called the game “La Crosse” for “cross”[xix]. Lacrosse was played by the Six Nations of the Iroquois in what became upper New York State and lower Ontario long before the New World was even discovered [xx]. In what would become the United States, the Cherokee called their version of the game “little brother of war” because it was considered excellent training for combat due to the injuries that would inevitably be received because of the game’s violent nature  [xxi]. Up to thousands of people in the tribe would play together, and women were often included. Among many tribes, the Lacrosse game would be preceded by complex rituals and a solemn dance.

Many factors such as age, gender, race, and religion influenced sports in the culture of Indigenous people. Sports were used for a number of different reasons. They could be for leisure, or they could be training for war. Dances were also a very important section of Indigenous sports. Dances represented religion, culture, jobs, and war. Indigenous sports are a crucial component to culture in the United States today. Although sports were very important to the Great Plains Indians they had many other rich traditions that they explored. Religions and traditions held important value in Indigenous tribes. 

Honor in Competition
Honor and integrity were highly valued and regarded in plains Indians communities. [xxxvii] The average Indian who partook in the these sports regarded honoring the person who gave them the most competition, this showed how natives honored a fair and competitive battle. Unlike in today's culture where we need referees, the Indians played on a system of trust. This system again proved how much the Native Americans honored the games and honored each other. It is something that our culture is losing what with all the cheating scandals and trash talking during games[xxxviii]. 

Although we as americans have changed the the sports culture of the plains indians and the true origins and meaning of it frequently go unappreciated. but the sports have evolved into intrinsic parts of american culture that influence decisions that we as americans make nearly everyday.

In conclusion the Great Plains Indians traditions were deeply rooted in their everyday lives. Whether it be games, dances, or other practices it is apparent the had a strong, harmonious relationship with their environment. They still live on today and still practice many of their traditions. The question of whether the Great Plains Indians can be considered modern no longer seeks an answer because it has been shown that regardless of the time, the Great Plains Indians have always stayed true to their traditions and have impacted everyone around them with their resiliency and peaceful nature. 

The Northern Plains Specific Games
The Northern Plains experienced the greatest areal spread from a congested central North America to land all around them, and the fastest rate of colonization in the shortest period of time of any other region in the United States. South Dakota’s landscapes reveal the toll these changes took on the land of the Great Plains. How the land is preserved and how the people act plays a huge role in sports of the Native Americans. The Indigenous people treated their games as being sacred, and played them on quality fields in important areas of town [xvi].
Connections to Mexico

When looking at how indigenous people shaped the traditions and culture of sports today, we must look at all indigenous sports from across the America’s. The similarities between the uses of sports in the native of America and the native of Mexico are striking. Sports are not solely used as a fun pastime. Sports are used to express differences, as well. Different tribes compete in sports against each other to show how they are different than each other. In the seemingly homogeneous culture of Mexico, sports are used to highlight and celebrate the differences between different tribes [xvii]. They are often played against people of different regions, and are therefore considered to create ties between different cultures of Mexico [xviii]. Indigenous tribes all across the American continent participate in games. Sports connect the tribes in North America who play each other together.

Legacy Indigenous Sports in Today’s Society
Indigenous tribes of North America rely heavily on higher forces during their sporting events. Often they are used as a means to connect with heavenly powers [xiv]. Sports that evolved from these religious rituals keep the traditions of participating in events outside of themselves. Some of the most famous and most important sports the Indians played are ball games, lacrosse, running, archery, swimming, hoop-and-pole, and games of chance [xv]. In today’s society, Indians such as Peter Thangaraj and Sailendra Nath Manna have gained recognition for being amazing athletes in both football and baseball. People living in the America’s today have connections with the Indigenous tribes before us due to our copying of their sports. We owe a great amount of our culture to the Indigenous people who cared for the lands we now live on.

 

Endnotes:
[i] Gems, Gerald, Linda J. Borish, and Gertrud Pfister. Sports in American History: From Colonization to Globalization. Illinois: Human Kinetics Books, 2008

[ii] Delsahut, Fabrice, and Thierrt Terret. 2014. “First Nations, Games, and Sport in Pre- and Post- Colonial North America.” Womens History Review 23, no. 6:976-995 (accessed 2015).

[iii] Delsahut, Fabrice, and Thierrt Terret. 2014. “First Nations, Games, and Sport in Pre- and Post- Colonial North America.” Womens History Review 23, no. 6:976-995 (accessed 2015).

[iv] Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Native Americans.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.na.001 

[v] Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Native Americans.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.na.001 

[vi] Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Women Warriors.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.gen.045 

[vii] Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Native Americans.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.na.001 

[viii]  Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Women Warriors.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.gen.045 

[ix]  Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Women Warriors.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.gen.045 

[x] Wishart, David J. Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, s.v. “Native Americans.” Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2011. http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.na.001 

[xi] Kurath, Gertrude Prokosch. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Native American Dance: The Great Plains.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EB checked/topic/665630/Native-American-dance/77632/The-Great-Plains
[xii]Kurath, Gertrude Prokosch. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Native American Dance: The Great Plains.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EB checked/topic/665630/Native-American-dance/77632/The-Great-Plains
[xiii]Kurath, Gertrude Prokosch. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Native American Dance: The Great Plains.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EB checked/topic/665630/Native-American-dance/77632/The-Great-Plains
[xiv] Oxendine, Joseph B. American Indian Sports Heritage, Illinois: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.
[xv] Oxendine, Joseph B. American Indian Sports Heritage, Illinois: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.
[xvi] Conzen, Michael P. Journal of Geography: Understanding the Great Plains Urbanization through the Lens of the South Dakota Townscapes. (accessed 2015).
[xvii] Conzen, Michael P. Journal of Geography: Understanding the Great Plains Urbanization through the Lens of the South Dakota Townscapes. (accessed 2015).
[xviii] Brewster, Keith 2004”Redeeming the ‘Indian’: Sport and Ethnicity in Post Revolutionary Mexico” Patterns of Prejudice (accessed 2015)
[xix] Sebastian, Bradley. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Lacrosse.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EBchecked/topic/327300/lacrosse
[xx] Sebastian, Bradley. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Lacrosse.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EBchecked/topic/327300/lacrosse

[xxi] Sebastian, Bradley. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, s.v. “Lacrosse.” Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 2015. http://academic.eb.com/EBchecked/topic/327300/lacrosse

[xxii] McCarthy, Amanda, The Gale Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes, vol. 11, ”Great Plains”, Detroit: Gale research, Inc, 1998

[xxiii] Lippy H., Charles, Encyclopedia of The Great Plains,s.v. “Religion”,  Lincoln: University of Nebraska, David J. Wishart, 1989

[xxiv] Roppolo, Kimberly; Johansen, Bruce; Lindsey, Fred, Encyclopedia of American Indian History, Vol. 11, s.v. “sweat lodges, thanksgiving holiday, origina, totem poles” pg. 473-479, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Inc, 2008

[xxv]Took, Elizabeth, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, s. v. "Northeast Indian," accessed January 27, 2015, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177413/Northeast-Indian.

[xxvi] Young A., Gloria, Encyclopedia Plains part 2, Vol. 13, s.v.  “Intertribal religious movements”, Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001, pg 996-1003
[xxvii]Devens, Carol, Countering Colonization: Native American Women and Great Lakes Missions, California, University of California Press, 1992

[xxviii]Martin, Joel, Native Americans, Christianity, And the Reshaping of the American Religious Landscape, California, University of North California press, 2010

[xxix] Bad Hand, Howard, Native American Healing, Chicago, Keats, 2002

[xxx] Duvall, Wisshler, Mythology Of The Blackfoot Indians, Lincoln and London, University of Nebraska, 199

[xxxi] Rees, Amanda, The Great Plains Religion, Westport, Ct, Greenwood pres., 2004

[xxxii]  Bowne, Eric. “Games of the Southeastern Indians.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 20, 2007. Accessed January , 2015.

[xxxiii]Darian-Smith, Eve. "Indian Gaming | Gambling." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. September 10, 2013. Accessed, 2015.

[xxxiv]  Bowne, Eric. “Games of the Southeastern Indians.” Encyclopedia of Alabama. June 20, 2007. Accessed , 2015.

[xxxv] King, C. Richard. Encyclopedia of American Indian History, s.v. “Lacrosse.” California: Bruce E. Johansen and Barry M. Pritzker, 2008. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?

[xxxvi]  Prine Pauls, Elizabeth. "Plains Indian | People." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. July 15, 2014. Accessed January 27, 2015.

[xxviii]   Darian-Smith, Eve. "Indian Gaming | Gambling." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. September 10, 2013. Accessed January 27, 2015.